Language Access Centre

Pada tanggal 16 Desember 2009, LAC(Language Acccess Centre UNIPDU) mengadakan lomba spelling(mengeja) di lingkungan fakultas bahasa dan Sastra UNIPDU. Lomba ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mengeja vocab bahasa inggris, serta untuk meningkatkan kemampuan listening dikalangan mahasiswa FBS UNIPDU. Lomba ini direspon banget oleh mereka karena unik, menarik, dan menantang.Setiap semester mahasiswa FBS mengirimkan 6 perwakilan mahasiswa, untuk mengikuti lomba ini. Lomba ini sengaja di peruntukkan untuk semua semster karena untuk menguji kemampuan pronounciation mereka. Untuk dewan Juri di handle oleh Ibu Uswatun Qoyyimah, M.ed,(Beliau adalah Dekan FBS Alumni dari Ausie) dan Ibu Afifah Sulam, MSc. (alumni dari Inggris). Untuk Vocabulary yang diujikan diambil dari kamus bhs Inggris. Jalannya lomba berlangsung seru, karena pada babak pertama banyak peserta lomba yang tereliminasi. Hasilnya cukup mengejutkan, mahasiswa semester satu, Ahmad Maulana berhasil menjuarai lomba ini, menyingkirkan peserta dari semester atas. sedangkan untuk pemenang dari prodi D- 3 bahasa Jepang dimenangkan oleh Iis Asfriyanti, juga mahasiswa semster 1. InsyaAllah atas permintaan mahasiswa juga, lomba ini akan dijadikan agenda rutin. di Lingkungan FBS UNIPDU. Terimakasih

Bhs Inggris itu mudah.. cara belajarnya juga mudah g sulit - sulit
ini tipsnya:

- Coba kerjakan soal grammar sebanyak mungkin .. dan kontinyu
- Coba baca apa yang telah anda kerjakan
- Jangan terlalu banyak belajar teori yang diperlukan hanya praktek
- Dengarkan lagu - lagu berbahasa inggris atau melihat film - film
yang berbahasa Inggris juga...
Semuanya sudah mencakup Grammar, writing, reading, vocabulary and listening

Terimakasih

There are many words and expressions for talking about fear.
Words
afraid: "Are you afraid of the dark?"
frightened: "I'm frightened of spiders."
scared: "He's scared of making mistakes."
feel uneasy: "I felt a bit uneasy when I walked home in the dark."
spooked: "My cats are easily spooked before a thunderstorm."
terrified: "She was absolutely terrified when she heard the noise."
petrified: "The building began to shake and we were all petrified."
Expressions
a terrifying ordeal
send shivers down my spine
give me goosebumps (goosebumps are when you skin has little bumps on it)
make the hairs on the back of my neck stand up (dogs also do this when they are scared)
scare the hell out of me
be scared shitless / shit scared (British slang - vulgar)
be bricking it (British slang - vulgar)
frighten the life out of me
shake with fear
jump out of my skin
Examples
One of the best horror films I have seen is "The Blair Witch Project". It tells the story of a terrifying ordeal in the woods of northern USA. Some of the scenes in the film sent shivers down my spine, especially the one when the students run out of the tent in the middle of the night. When they go back, one of the guy's rucksack has been emptied. When that same guy goes missing the next day, it gives you goosebumps.
There are some fabulous sound effects, especially the ones of the wind blowing and howling. When you hear the crying voices at the end of the film, it will make the hairs on the back of your neck stand up.
Perhaps the scariest part of the film is at the end, when you see one of the surviving students literally shake with fear in the corner of the basement. It certainly frightened the life out of the girl when she saw him, and I jumped out of my skin at the end when the camera stopped filming. The film scared the hell out of me for weeks afterwards, and I'm ashamed to say that I wouldn't go into an empty room in the house unless there was someone there with me.

Reading Tips to Improve Your Listening Skills

• Read the text as you listen to it on an audio book.
• Take advantage of audio books. Read a page and then listen to that page. Repeat once a day.
• Read aloud to each other in small groups. Each student is responsible for explaining new vocabulary in the paragraphs he / she reads.
• Ask your teacher to choose a book to read aloud to the class. Do a few pages each day.
• Listen to easy audio books in English on your way to and from work.

Reading Tips to Improve Your Pronunciation

• Choose a paragraph and read aloud.
• Choose a paragraph and mark each sentence with a sound script (helpful pronunciation markup). This will help you read more naturally, and thus pronounce correctly.
• Choose a few sentences from your reading material and highlight content words. Read these sentences focusing on accenting these content words, while quickly speaking over the structure words. For more information on this technique read this article on English as a time-stressed language.
• Once you become comfortable reading a single paragraph aloud, read an entire page by reading a paragraph aloud and then reading one silently.
• Choose some nursery rhymes to practice. They will help you with pronunciation through rhythm.
• Read a short story or a few paragraphs to a friend who is also studying English. Compare the differences and discuss what might be the reasons for the differences.
• Choose a paragraph, short article or newspaper story with new vocabulary. Use the Babylon dictionary or other online pronunciation resource to help you learn the correct pronunciation of these words.
• Read a play with some friends. Each friend takes a different part. Start with short scenes. Once you are comfortable, read longer pieces together.

When employing role-plays, debates, topic discussions, etc., I have noticed that some students are often timid in expressing their viewpoints. This seems due to a number of reasons:
• Students don't have an opinion on the subject
• Students have an opinion, but are worried about what the other students might say or think
• Students have an opinion, but don't feel they can say exactly what they mean
• Students begin giving their opinion, but want to state it in the same eloquent manner that they are capable of in their native language
• Other, more actively participating students, feel confident in their opinions and express them eloquently making the less confident students more timid
Pragmatically, conversation lessons and exercises are intended to improve conversational skills. For this reason, I find it helpful to first focus on building skills by eliminating some of the barriers that might be in the way of production. Having been assigned roles, opinions and points of view that they do not necessarily share, students are freed from having to express their own opinions. Therefore, they can focus on expressing themselves well in English. In this way, students tend to concentrate more on production skills, and less on factual content. They also are less likely to insist on literal translations from their mother tongue.
Implementing this approach can begin slowly by providing students with short role plays using cue cards. Once students become comfortable with target structures and representing differing points of view, classes can move onto more elaborated exercises such as debates and group decision making activities. This approach bears fruit especially when debating opposing points of view. By representing opposing points of view, students' imagination are activated by trying to focus on all the various points that an opposing stand on any given issue may take. As students inherently do not agree with the view they represent, they are freed from having to invest emotionally in the statements they make. More importantly, from a pragmatic point of view, students tend to focus more on correct function and structure when they do not become too emotionally involved in what they are saying.
Of course, this is not to say that students should not express their own opinions. After all, when students go out into the "real" world they will want to say what they mean. However, taking out the personal investment factor can help students first become more confident in using English. Once this confidence is gained, students - especially timid students - will be more self-assured when expressing their own points of view.

A. PENDAHULUAN
Dalam berupaya untuk menjaring guru pengajar yang mumpuni, pemerintah melakukan berbagai macam program. Beberapa kebijakan yang diterapkan, yang dianggap excellent, sampai saat ini masih belum ada kejelasan.
Berdasarkan Undang-undang 14/2005 tentang guru dan dosen, serta Permendiknas 18/2007 tentang sertifkasi Guru dalam jabatan, jumlah jam wajib mengajar 24 jam tatap muka.Untuk memenuhi jumlah jam wajib mengajar seorang guru dapat melakukan (1) Mengajar di sekolah lain yan memiliki izin operasional pemerintah atau Pemda (2) Melakukan team teaching (dengan mengikuti kaidah-kaidah team teaching).
Bagi guru dengan alasan tertentu sama sekali tidak dapat memenuhi kewajiban mengajar 24 jam, misalnya guru yang mengajar di Daerah Terpencil , seperti dalam Permendiknas 18/2007 pasal 6 ayat (4), “Guru tersebut harus mendapat persetujuan tertulis dari Pendidikan Nasional atau pejabat yang ditunjuk”.
Guru yang telah memiliki sertifikasi pendidikan harus terus meningkatkan kompetensinya melalui berbagai kegiatan untuk meningkatkan profesionalitas guru berkelanjutan (continuous professional development). Hal ini harus berlangsung secara berkesinambungan, karena prinsip mendasar adalah guru harus merupakan a learning person, belajar sepanjang masa selama hayat masih di kandung badan.
Pembinaan profesi guru secara terus-menerus (continuous professional development) menggunakan wadah guru yang sudah ada, yaitu Kelompok Kerja Guru (KKG) untuk tingkat SD, Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran (MGMP) untuk tingkat sekolah menengah di P4TK, di tingkat perguruan tinggi dan di tempat lain yang merupakan wahana pemeliharaan dan peningkatan kompetensi. Aktivitas guru di KKG/MGMP tidak saja untuk menyelesaikan persoalan pengajaran yang dialami guru dan berbagi pengalaman antar guru, tetapi juga untuk mengembangkan kontak akademik dan melakukan refleksi diri.
Dari uraian di atas, dengan penuh rasa tanggungjawab, Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa (BEM) Fakultas Bahasa dan Sastra (FBS) Universitas Pesantren Tinggi Darul ‘Ulum (Unipdu), perlu mengadakan Workshop Pengajaran khususnya mata pelajaran Bahasa Inggris untuk wahana pemeliharaan dan peningkatan kompetensi guru, hal ini juga untuk menyelesaikan persoalan pengajaran yang dialami guru karena disamping untuk mengembangkan kontak akademik tetapi juga sebagai wadah untuk melakukan refleksi diri.
B. BENTUK DAN TEMA KEGIATAN
• Bentuk kegiatan ini adalah Workshop Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris dengan tema : Methodology Pembelajaran Komunikatif
C. NARASUMBER
Adapun narasumber dan fasilitator dalam kegiatan ini adalah:
a. Mr. SUE RODGER (ELT Materials and Training Coordinator)
b. Afifa Zulfikar, SS. M. Sc (Pembantu Dekan III FBS, direktur PSB Unipdu)
D. MEKANISME PELAKSANAAN
Workshop
Adapun mekanisme penyampaian dalam English Training Workshop ini adalah:
•Presentasi
•Tanya Jawab/Dialog
E. PESERTA
1.Peserta English Training Workshop adalah Perwakilan Guru SMA dan Sederajat Se-Kabupaten Jombang yang telah mendaftarkan diri kepada Panitia. sesuai dengan waktu yang telah ditentukan.
2.Peserta wajib hadir 30 menit sebelum acara dimulai.
3.mengingat efektifitas forum maka peserta akan dibatasi.
F.TEKNIS PELAKSANAAN
1.Mengisi formulir pendaftaran (terlampir)
2.Pendaftaran di mulai pada tanggal 20 Februari 2009 s/d 10 Maret 2009
3.Pendaftaran dibuka setiap hari ,sabtu sampai kamis (Jumat libur) mulai Jam 09.00 s/d 14.00
4. Setiap Peserta dikenakan kontribusi sebesar Rp 50.000,- (Lima Puluh Ribu Rupiah).
5.Pendaftaran bisa datang langsung ke kantor sekretariat Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa (BEM) Fakultas Bahasa dan Sastra Unipdu atau melalui surat pos (Tromol Pos 10 Fakultas Bahasa dan Sastra Unipdu Peterongan Jombang kode pos 61481) dengan menyertakan formuilir pendaftaran dan bukti transfer ke No. Rekening 3203-01-000459-50-5 (atas nama SELI alamat peterongan)
6. Workshop ini akan dilaksanakan:
Hari : Kamis
Tanggal : 12 Maret 2009
Waktu : 08.00 WIB s/d Selesai
Tempat : Auditorium Kampus Unipdu Jombang

Expressions of quantity are placed before nouns and express 'how much' or 'how many' of something exists. Some expressions of quantity are only used with noncount (uncountable) nouns, others are only used with count (countable) nouns. Some expressions of quantity are used with both noncount and count nouns. Here are some examples:
Count Nouns
both friends
several people
many trees
Both Count and Noncount Nouns
some time / friends
all people / all food
lots of things / money
The chart at the bottom of the page provides an overview of the most common expressions of quantity and the nouns (count or noncount) they proceed. The chart begins with the least amount (0) and ends in the greatest amount (all).
Here are examples sentences of each of these expressions in the order given in the chart. Examples go from the lowest number of amount to the highest number or amount:
Not any - Both Count and Noncount Nouns
I don't have any time this week.
She doesn't have any friends in London.
No - Both Count and Noncount Nouns
Mary has no money to go away on holiday.
I have no friends in Chicago.
One, two, three, etc. - Count Nouns Only
Peter has one car.
Both - Count Nouns Only
Both of my friends live in San Francisco.
A Couple Of - Count Nouns Only
There are a couple of cats in that house.
A Few / Few - Count Nouns Only
There are a few students in the classroom.
She has few friends in New York.
A Little / Little - Noncount Nouns Only
There is a little food left on the table.
There is little time to waste.
Some - Both Count and Noncount Nouns
I've got some extra money saved up in the bank.
She's got some friends in New Orleans.
Several - Count Nouns Only
There are several books on that table.
Much - Noncount Nouns Only
How much time is left?
Many - Count Nouns Only
There aren't many days left until Christmas.
A Lot Of / Lots of - Both Count and Noncount Nouns
We have a lot of rice in the kitchen.
There are a lot of students waiting to take the test.
She has lots of time to get ready.
Jack has lots of friends in Los Angeles.
Plenty Of - Both Count and Noncount Nouns
There is plenty of help available
at the library.
There are plenty of children in need of your help.
A Number Of - Count Nouns Only
She has a number of business contacts in Los Vegas.
Most - Both Count and Noncount Nouns
He has the most time of anyone.
She keeps most receipts on her desk.
Each - Count Nouns Only
Each student must come to class on time.
Every - Count Nouns Only
Every day is important.
All - Both Count and Noncount Nouns
She keeps all oranges in the refrigerator.
We keep all rice in the cupboard.

Invitation for all


PEKAN BUDAYA JEPANG UNIPDU (BUNKASAI)
Tingkat SMA Jombang , Mojokerto, Nanjuk dan Kediri
Hari, tanggal : Ahad, 22 Februari 2009
Waktu : 08.00 WIB s/d selesai
Tempat : Audittorium kampus Utama Unipdu

1. Pameran Bunkasai
2. Informasi beasiswa dari Konjen Jepang dan pemutaran film Jepang.

Jenis Lomba
• Rodoku (membaca)
• Kakitori (menulis)
• Soudou (kaligrafi)
• Cerdas cermat
• Memasak

ENGLISH TRAINING WHORKSHOP
TINGKAT GURU SMA KE KABUPATEN JOMBANG
Hari, tanggal : Senin, 2 Maret 2009
Waktu : 08.00 WIB s/d selesai
Acara : Workshop Standart Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris
Tempat : Audittorium kampus Utama Unipdu
Narasumber adalah:
Mr. SUE RODGER (ELT Materials and Training Coordinator)
Afifa Zulfikar, SS. M. Sc (Pembantu Dekan iii FBS dan direktur PSB Unipdu)

Sekretariat Panitia: BEM FBS UNIPDU Peterongan Jombang 61481

Contact Person:Ach Ghozali. Hs 085645430497
Agus M Herlambang 081359960974
Adib Masruhi 08563447613

FULBRIGHT MASTER’S DEGREE PROGRAM

Preference will be given to applicants who serve as faculty members of state and private institutions of higher education
in Indonesia. Applicants will possess:

1. a Sarjana (S1) degree with a minimum GPA of 3.0 (4.00 scale)
2. leadership qualities
3. a good understanding of Indonesian and international cultures a
4. demonstrated commitment to the chosen field of study
5. a willingness to return to Indonesia upon completion of the Fulbright program
6. a minimum TOEFL score of 550

HOW TO APPLY
Candidates should complete the appropriate application forms. Forms are available either by mail or in person at the AMINEF Office, Gedung Balai Pustaka, 6th floor, Jl. Gunung Sahari Raya 4, Jakarta 10720.

Please return to AMINEF your complete application package by the application deadline that includes:

1. Completed application form. This includes a clearly written and concise study objective.
2. Copy of your most recent, less than two years old, TOEFL score report.
3. One letter of reference, either from your current employer or previous lecturer.
4. Copy of academic transcript (English translation).
5. Copy of identity document (KTP or passport).

CONTACT INFORMATION
Specific questions regarding the application process may be addressed via e-mail to the following address: infofulbright_ind@aminef.or.id. We do not accept email applications. Hard copies must be sent or delivered to American Indonesian Exchange Foundation.

APPLICATION FORM
http://www.aminef.or.id/file/fulbright/2009%20FULBRIGHT%20APPLICATION%20FORM.doc

DEADLINE
The deadline for the submission of application materials for all programs is May 31, 2009.

Note: Program requirements are subject to change without notice.

More information visit:
http://www.aminef.or.id/fulbright.php?site=fulbright&m=ip-pro-ma-fulbrightma

Masters/PgDip Scholarships for 2009-10

Centre for Russian, Central and East European Studies (CRCEES)

A consortium of the Universities of Glasgow, Nottingham, St Andrews, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Newcastle, Strathclyde, and the West of Scotland

Suitably qualified applicants from any branch of the Social Sciences and Humanities are invited to apply for Masters studentships and Postgraduate language diplomas for study in the 2009-10 academic year.

Applications are invited for the one-year MSc in Russian and East European Studies, University of Glasgow and for intensive one-year Postgraduate diplomas (PgDip) in Russian, Polish, Czech Serbian/Croatian and Slovene language.

Applications should send a covering letter, CV and two references to Ann Mulholland, CRCEES Administrator at the address below by 27th February 2009.

For eligibility and details see ESRC (http://www.esrc.ac.uk).

For further details please see the CRCEES website http://www.gla.ac.uk/crcees/admissions/admissions.html

Centre for Russian, Central and East European Studies (CRCEES)
University of Glasgow
8-9 Lilybank Gardens
Glasgow
G12 8RZ
Tel No: 0141 330 8539
Email: A.Mulholland@lbss.gla.ac.uk

For other uses, see Syntax (disambiguation).
"Syntactic" redirects here. For another meaning of the adjective, see Syntaxis.
In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek συν- syn-, "together", and τάξις táxis, "arrangement") is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages. In addition to referring to the discipline, the term syntax is also used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language, as in "the syntax of Modern Irish". Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules. Many professionals in this discipline attempt to find general rules that apply to all natural languages. The term syntax is also sometimes used to refer to the rules governing the behavior of mathematical systems, such as logic, artificial formal languages, and computer programming languages.

Early history

Works on grammar were being written long before modern syntax came about; the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini is often cited as an example of a pre-modern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory.[1] In the West, the school of thought that came to be known as "traditional grammar" began with the work of Dionysius Thrax.

For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a framework known as grammaire générale, first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title. This system took as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single, most natural way to express a thought. That way, coincidentally, was exactly the way it was expressed in French.

However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language, and to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as a most natural way to express a thought, and therefore logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure of language.

The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic (indeed, large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale[2]). Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of "Subject – Copula – Predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp.

The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned. For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries, see the monumental work by Graffi (2001).

Modern theories

There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. Many linguists (e.g. Noam Chomsky) see syntax as a branch of biology, since they conceive of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind. Others (e.g. Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view, since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system.[3] Yet others (e.g. Joseph Greenberg) consider grammar a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages. Some of the major approaches to the discipline are listed below.

Generative grammar

Main article: Generative grammar

The hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind. The goal of generative grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language (known as i-language). This model could be used to describe all human language and to predict the grammaticality of any given utterance (that is, to predict whether the utterance would sound correct to native speakers of the language). This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky. Most generative theories (although not all of them) assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the form of a sentence, rather than its communicative function.

Among the many generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are:

* Transformational Grammar (TG) (Original theory of generative syntax laid out by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957[4])
* Government and binding theory (GB) (revised theory in the tradition of TG developed mainly by Chomsky in the 1970s and 1980s).[5]
* The Minimalist Program (MP) (revised version of GB published by Chomsky in 1995)[6]

Other theories that find their origin in the generative paradigm are:

* Generative semantics (now largely out of date)
* Relational grammar (RG) (now largely out of date)
* Arc Pair grammar
* Generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG; now largely out of date)
* Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG)
* Lexical-functional grammar (LFG)
Categorial grammar

Categorial grammar is an approach that attributes the syntactic structure not to rules of grammar, but to the properties of the syntactic categories themselves. For example, rather than asserting that sentences are constructed by a rule that combines a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP) (e.g. the phrase structure rule S → NP VP), in categorial grammar, such principles are embedded in the category of the head word itself. So the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula representing the fact that the verb acts as a functor which requires an NP as an input and produces a sentence level structure as an output. This complex category is notated as (NP\S) instead of V. NP\S is read as " a category that searches to the left (indicated by \) for a NP (the element on the left) and outputs a sentence (the element on the right)". The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs (its subject and its direct object) to form a sentence. This is notated as (NP/(NP\S)) which means "a category that searches to the right (indicated by /) for an NP (the object), and generates a function (equivalent to the VP) which is (NP\S), which in turn represents a function that searches to the left for an NP and produces a sentence).

Tree-adjoining grammar is a categorial grammar that adds in partial tree structures to the categories.
Dependency grammar

Dependency grammar is a different type of approach in which structure is determined by the relations (such as grammatical relations) between a word (a head) and its dependents, rather than being based in constituent structure. For example, syntactic structure is described in terms of whether a particular noun is the subject or agent of the verb, rather than describing the relations in terms of phrases.

Some dependency-based theories of syntax:

* Algebraic syntax
* Word grammar
* Operator Grammar
Stochastic/probabilistic grammars/network theories

Theoretical approaches to syntax that are based upon probability theory are known as stochastic grammars. One common implementation of such an approach makes use of a neural network or connectionism. Some theories based within this approach are:

* Optimality theory
* Stochastic context-free grammar
Functionalist grammars

Functionalist theories, although focused upon form, are driven by explanation based upon the function of a sentence (i.e. its communicative function). Some typical functionalist theories include:

* Functional grammar (Dik)
* Prague Linguistic Circle
* Systemic functional grammar
* Cognitive grammar
* Construction grammar (CxG)
* Role and reference grammar (RRG)
* Emergent grammar

PROGRAM BEASISWA S2 & S3 LUAR NEGERI DEPKOMINFO TAHUN 2009



Departemen Komunikasi dan Informatika pada Tahun 2009 kembali membuka kesempatan dan menyediakan beasiswa pendidikan S2 dan S3 di luar negeri bagi PNS di lingkungan lembaga pemerintah, karyawan/karyawati di lembaga pendidikandan industri teknologi informasi dan komunikasi (TIK), serta masyarakat umum.



Persyaratan :

1. Lulusan sarjana S1 untuk pendidikan S2 dan lulusan Sarjana S2

untuk pendidikan S3.

2. Memiliki IPK minimal 2,75 (dari skala 4)

3. Memiliki nilai Institutional TOEFL (ITP) minimal 550 atau IELTS minimal 6.5

4. Memiliki nilai Tes Potensi Akademik (TPA) minimal 550

5. Mendapat rekomendasi dari pejabat yang berwenang

6. Diutamakan :

a. Memiliki pengalaman kerja minimal 2 tahun

b. Berusia maksimal 35 tahun untuk pendidikan S2 dan 40 tahun untuk

pendidikan S3.

c. Belum memiliki gelar dan tidak sedang menerima beasiswa lain dan/atau sedang mengikuti program pendidikan S2 (bagi pelamar program S2) atau S3 (bagi pelamar program S3)

7. Pendaftaran dan penyerahan berkas lamaran beasiswa paling lambat tanggal

18 Februari 2009.

Visit Us at:

http://www.depkominfo.go.id/program/beasiswa-s2-s3-luar-negeri-depkominfo-2009/

Info Situs Beasiswa
Situs Penyedia beasiswa Luar negeri
1. Beasiswa ADS: www.adsjakarta.or.id
2. Beasiswa Chevening: www.chevening.or.id
3. Beasiswa Stuned: www.nesoindonesia.or.id
4. Beasiswa DAAD: jakarta.daad.de
5. Beasiswa Fullbright: www.aminef.or.id
6. Beasiswa ALA: www.ausaid.gov.au/scholar
7. Beasiswa Monbukagakusho: www.id.emb-jpn.go.jp
8. Beasiswa Endeavour: www.endeavour.deewr.gov.au
9. Beasiswa Ford Foundation: www.fordfound,org
10. Beasiswa Sampoerna Foundation: www.sampoernafoundation.org

Luasnya Wilayah Sosiologi Sastra
Oleh Gunoto Saparie

Sabtu, 17 Maret 2007
KRITIK sastra memiliki korelasi yang erat dengan perkembangan kesusastraan. Menurut Andre Hardjana, kritik sastra merupakan sumbangan yang dapat diberikan oleh para peneliti sastra bagi perkembangan dan pembinaan sastra. Hal senada juga diungkapkan oleh Subagio Sastrowardoyo, bahwa untuk bisa menentukan bagaimana sesungguhnya perkembangan kesusastraan Indonesia, dibutuhkan suatu kritik.

Kita tahu, pendekatan dalam kritik sastra cukup beragam. Pendekatan-pendekatan tersebut bertolak dari empat orientasi teori kritik. Yang pertama, orientasi kepada semesta yang melahirkan teori mimesis. Kedua, teori kritik yang berorientasi kepada pembaca yang disebut teori pragmatik. Penekanannya bisa pada pembaca sebagai pemberi makna dan pembaca sebagai penerima efek karya sastra. Resepsi sastra merupakan pendekatan yang berorientasi kepada pembaca.

Untuk yang ketiga, teori kritik yang berorientasi pada elemen pengarang dan disebut sebagai teori ekspresif. Sedangkan keempat adalah teori yang berorientasi kepada karya yang dikenal dengan teori obyektif.

Dalam kaitan ini, sosiologi sastra merupakan pendekatan yang bertolak dari orientasi kepada semesta, namun bisa juga bertolak dari orientasi kepada pengarang dan pembaca.

Menurut pendekatan sosiologi sastra, karya sastra dilihat hubungannya dengan kenyataan, sejauh mana karya sastra itu mencerminkan kenyataan. Kenyataan di sini mengandung arti yang cukup luas, yakni segala sesuatu yang berada di luar karya sastra dan yang diacu oleh karya sastra.

Wilayah sosiologi sastra cukup luas. Rene Wellek dan dan Austin Warren membagi telaah sosiologis menjadi tiga klasifikasi. Pertama, sosiologi pengarang, yakni yang mempermasalahkan tentang status sosial, ideologi politik, dan lain-lain yang menyangkut diri pengarang. Kedua, sosiologi karya sastra, yakni mempermasalahkan tentang suatu karya sastra. Yang menjadi pokok telaah adalah tentang apa yang tersirat dalam karya sastra tersebut dan apa tujuan atau amanat yang hendak disampaikannya. Ketiga, sosiologi sastra yang mempermasalahkan tentang pembaca dan pengaruh sosialnya terhadap masyarakat.

Klasifikasi tersebut tidak jauh berbeda dengan bagan yang dibuat oleh Ian Watt dengan melihat hubungan timbal balik antara sastrawan, sastra, dan masyarakat.

Telaah suatu karya sastra menurut Ian Watt akan mencakup tiga hal, yakni konteks sosial pengarang, sastra sebagai cermin masyarakat, dan fungsi sosial sastra.

Konteks sosial pengarang adalah yang menyangkut posisi sosial masyarakat dan kaitannya dengan masyarakat pembaca, termasuk di dalamnya faktor-faktor sosial yang bisa mempengaruhi diri pengarang sebagai perseorangan di samping mempengaruhi isi karya sastranya. Sastra sebagai cermin masyarakat menelaah sampai sejauh mana sastra dianggap sebagai pencerminan keadaan masyarakat. Fungsi sosial sastra, dalam hal ini ditelaah sampai berapa jauh nilai sastra berkaitan dengan nilai sosial, dan sampai seberapa jauh pula sastra dapat berfungsi sebagai alat penghibur dan sekaligus sebagai pendidikan masyarakat bagi pembaca.

Umar Junus mengemukakan, bahwa yang menjadi pembicaraan dalam telaah sosiologi sastra adalah karya sastra dilihat sebagai dokumen sosial budaya. Ia juga menyangkut penelitian mengenai penghasilan dan pemasaran karya sastra. Termasuk pula penelitian tentang penerimaan masyarakat terhadap sebuah karya sastra seorang penulis tertentu dan apa sebabnya. Selain itu juga berkaitan dengan pengaruh sosial budaya terhadap penciptaan karya sastra, misalnya pendekatan Taine yang berhubungan dengan bangsa, dan pendekatan Marxis yang berhubungan dengan pertentangan kelas. Tak boleh diabaikan juga dalam kaitan ini pendekatan strukturalisme genetik dari Goldman dan pendekatan Devignaud yang melihat mekanisme universal dari seni, termasuk sastra.Sastra bisa dilihat sebagai dokumen sosial budaya yang mencatat kenyataan sosio-budaya suatu masyarakat pada suatu masa tertentu. Pendekatan ini bertolak dari anggapan bahwa karya sastra tidak lahir dari kekosongan budaya. Bagaiamanapun karya sastra itu mencerminkan masyarakatnya dan secara tidak terhindarkan dipersiapkan oleh keadaan masyarakat dan kekuatan-kekuatan pada zamannya.

Demikian pula obyek karya sastra adalah realitas kehidupan, meskipun dalam menangkap realitas tersebut sastrawan tidak mengambilnya secara acak. Sastrawan memilih dan menyusun bahan-bahan itu dengan berpedoman pada asas dan tujuan tertentu. Henry James mengatakan, bahwa sastrawan menganalisis "data" kehidupan sosial, memahaminya dan mencoba menentukan tanda yang esensial untuk dipindahkan ke dalam karya sastra.

Apabila realitas itu adalah sebuah peristiwa sejarah, maka karya sastra dapat mencoba menerjemahkan peristiwa itu dalam bahasa imajiner dengan maksud untuk memahami peristiwa sejarah menurut kadar kemampuan pengarang. Kecuali itu, karya sastra dapat menjadi sarana bagi pengarangnya untuk menyampaikan pikiran, perasaan dan tanggapannya mengenai peristiwa sejarah dan ketiga seperti juga karya sejarah, karya sastra dapat merupakan penciptaan kembali peristiwa sejarah dengan pengetahuan dan daya imajinasi pengarang.

Hubungan dialektik antara karya sastra dan realitas sosial budaya memperkuat anggapan bahwa sastra merupakan salah satu institusi sosial. Sastra tidak hanya mendapat pengaruh dari realitas sosial tetapi juga dapat mempengaruhi realitas sosial. Memang benar, sastra mengambil sebagian besar karakternya dari bahasa, namun bentuk dan isi novel lebih banyak berasal dari fenomena sosial daripada dari seni lain, terkecuali film. Novel seringkali merupakan ikatan dengan momentum tertentu dalam peristiwa sejarah masyarakat. Michel Zerraffa mengatakan, bahwa karya sastra merupakan analisis estetis dan sintesis sebuah realitas tertentu dan novelis senantiasa melakukan analisis dan sintesis sebelum memulai menulis.

Mengeksploitasi Manusia

Karya sastra mengeksploitasi manusia dan masyarakat. Hal ini yang menjadi alasan utama mengapa sosiologi sastra penting dan dengan sendirinya perlu dibangun pola-pola analisis sekaligus teori-teori yang berkaitan dengannya. Meskipun masalah sastra dan manusia/masyarakat sudah dibicarakan jauh sebelumnya, sosiologi sastra sebagai ilmu yang berdiri sendiri dengan menggunakan teori dan metode ilmiah dianggap baru mulai pada abad ke-18.

Paradigma sosiologi sastra berakar dari latar belakang historis dua gejala, yaitu masyarakat dan sastra: karya sastra ada dalam masyarakat, dengan kata lain, tidak ada karya sastra tanpa masyarakat. Sosiologi sastra, meskipun belum menemukan pola analisis yang dianggap memuaskan, mulai memperhatikan karya seni sebagai bagian yang integral dari masyarakat. Tujuannya jelas untuk memberikan kualitas yang proposional bagi kedua gejala: sastra dan masyarakat. Demikianlah, pendekatan sosiologi sastra menaruh perhatian pada aspek dokumenter sastra, dengan landasan suatu pandangan bahwa sastra merupakan gambaran atau potret fenomena sosial. Pada hakikatnya, fenomena sosial itu bersifat konkret, terjadi di sekeliling kita sehari-hari, bisa diobservasi, difoto, dan didokumentasikan. Oleh pengarang, fenomena itu diangkat kembali menjadi wacana baru dengan proses kreatif (pengamatan, analisis, interpretasi, refleksi, imajinasi, evaluasi, dan sebagainya) dalam bentuk karya sastra.

Sastra menyajikan gambaran kehidupan, dan kehidupan itu sendiri sebagian besar terdiri dari kenyataan sosial. Dalam pengertian ini, kehidupan mencakup hubungan antarmasyarakat dengan orang-orang, antarmanusia, antarperistiwa yang terjadi dalam batin seseorang. Maka, memandang karya sastra sebagai penggambaran dunia dan kehidupan manusia, kriteria utama yang dikenakan pada karya sastra adalah "kebenaran" penggambaran, atau yang hendak digambarkan. Namun Wellek dan Warren mengingatkan, bahwa karya sastra memang mengekspresikan kehidupan, tetapi keliru kalau dianggap mengekspresikan selengkap-lengkapnya. Hal ini disebabkan fenomena kehidupan sosial yang terdapat dalam karya sastra tersebut kadang tidak disengaja dituliskan oleh pengarang, atau karena hakikat karya sastra itu sendiri yang tidak pernah langsung mengungkapkan fenomena sosial, tetapi secara tidak langsung, yang mungkin pengarangnya sendiri tidak tahu. Karya sastra dapat juga mencerminkan dan menyatakan segi-segi yang kadang-kadang kurang jelas dalam masyarakat.

* Gunoto Saparie, penyair dan Bendahara
Dewan Kesenian Jawa Tengah

Translation Theory and Practice

Good theory is based on information gained from practice. Good practice is based on carefully worked-out theory. The two are interdependent. (Larson l991, p. 1)

The ideal translation will be accurate as to meaning and natural as to the receptor language forms used. An intended audience who is unfamiliar with the source text will readily understand it. The success of a translation is measured by how closely it measures up to these ideals.

The ideal translation should be…

* Accurate: reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning of the source text.
* Natural: using natural forms of the receptor language in a way that is appropriate to the kind of text being translated.
* Communicative: expressing all aspects of the meaning in a way that is readily understandable to the intended audience.

Translation is a process based on the theory that it is possible to abstract the meaning of a text from its forms and reproduce that meaning with the very different forms of a second language.

Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. (Larson l998, p. 3)

Overview of the translation task

Diagram from Larson l998, p. 4

In practice, there is considerable variation in the types of translations produced by translators. Some translators work only in two languages and are competent in both. Others work from their first language to their second language, and still others from their second language to their first language. Depending on these matters of language proficiency, the procedures used will vary from project to project. In most projects in which SIL is involved, a translation team carries on the project. Team roles are worked out according to the individual skills of team members. There is also some variation depending on the purpose of a given translation and the type of translation that will be accepted by the intended audiences.

translators working

Books by SIL authors that present translation theory and practice include the following which are available on line at the International Academic Bookstore. There are also many articles on translation theory and practice listed in the SIL bibliography.

Of interest to all professional translators:
Callow, Kathleen, l999, Man and Message
Gutt, Ernst-August, l992, Relevance Theory
Larson, Mildred L., Meaning-based Translation (Also in Indonesian, Spanish, and Russian.)

Linguistics

What is Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters.

The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language.

Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines such as english, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer science (AI), linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions.

Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects.

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Phonetics

Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of languge, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer percieves them. Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics:

* Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds.
* Acousitc Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.
* Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds.

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Phonology

Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are organized in a language. Phonolgy examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules.

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Morphology

Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process. The elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language. The word cats, for example, contains the morphemes cat and the plural -s.

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Syntax

Syntax is the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules. These rules detail an underlying structure and a transformational process. The underlying structure of English for example would have a subject-verb-object sentence order (John hit the ball). The transformational process would allow an alteration of the word order which could give you something like The ball was hit by John.

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Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning. It is concerned with describing how we represent the meaning of a word in our mind and how we use this representation in constructing sentences. Semantics is based largely on the study of logic in philosophy.

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Language Acquisition

Language acquistion examines how children learn to speak and how adults learn a second language. Language acquistion is very important because it gives us insight in the underlying processes of language. There are two components which contribute to language acqusition. The innate knowledge of the learner (called Universal Grammer or UG) and the environment. The notion of UG has broad implications. It suggests that all languages operate within the same framework and the understanding of this framework would contribute greatly to the understanding of what language is.

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Other Disciplines

* Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of interrelationships of language and social structure, linguistic variation, and attitudes toward language.
* Neurolinguistics: Neurolinguistics is the study of the brain and how it functions in the production, preception and acquistion of language.
* Historical Linguistics: Historical linguistics is the study of language change and the relationships of languages to each other.
* Anthropological Linguistics: Anthropological linguistics is the study of language and culture and how they interact.
* Pragmatics: Pragmatics studies meaning in context.

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E Mail

Stu Barton

stubarton@home.com

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